The Integrative Action of the Nervous System

Figure 69. — Spinal shock. The scratch-reflex, as in the previous figure, but obtained under still deeper depression of spinal shock. Time in fifths of seconds. The signal shows the period of mechanical excitation. bling those characteristic of it when fatigued. The scratch- reflex under spinal shock (Figs. 6S, 69) shows irregularity of rhythm, slow protracted relatively feeble beats, and speedy onset of temporary inexcitability, features which characterize it when nearly tired out (comp. Fig. 62, 63, Lect. VI). So also with the flexion-reflex of the leg. In the period of depression by spinal shock the reflex is feeble even under strong excitation, is relatively short-lasting, and on cessation of the exciting stim- ulus shows little of the prolonged after-discharge that it is prone to show at other times : it also tires out then with abnormal rapidity. The scratch-reflex in spinal shock of pronounced degree fails to be elicitable by electrical stim- ulation at all, though still elicitable by rubbing. This indi- cates the greater efficacy of a stimulus more nearly like the adequate.

The condition of the spinal reflex-arcs in spinal shock ap- pears to resemble a general spinal fatigue rather than an inhibi- tion. It renders difficult and uncertain the process of conduction along the reflex-arc as judged by the discharge from the ter- minal neurone. This suggests a loosening of nexus between the links of the neurone-chain composing the arc ; a defect of transmission at the synapse. Such a conception of the disorder accords well with the suggestion of v. Monakow^^ that a '' dia- schizis " takes place between the conducting cells, his " schalt- zellen " failing to perform their normal function as connecting elements.

I think, therefore, that spinal shock is neither due to irritation by trauma, nor in the main a phenomenon of inhibition. The rupture of certain aborally conducting paths appears to induce it. Which these paths exactly are is matter for research. After cervical transection separating the cord from the bulbar vaso- motor centre, the phenomenon might be attributable to the invariably severe fall of general arterial pressure. But this cannot be the chief explanation, for: (i)the head does not par- ticipate in the " shock," although participating in the low blood- pressure; (2) with post-thoracic transection the body region distal to the spinal lesion exhibits shock as severe as after cervical transection, though there is no fall of blood-pressure ; (3) tran- section anterior to the bulbar vasomotor centre but posterior to the pons leaves the blood-pressure unreduced but the spinal shock severe.

The shock is more profound in the monkey than in other ani- mals observed in the laboratory. This might suggest a cerebral origin for the paths implicated. But ablation of the hemispheres does not induce anything like the depth of spinal depression in- duced by transections behind the pons. The much severer character of the depression when the transection passes behind the pons indicates an aborally directed influence from some nucleus of the pontine or midbrain system, driven probably by the great cranial receptors of otic labyrinth and eye, rein- forced by impulses from the cord itself. The great influence on spinal centres of a cranial mechanism in this region, driven by the otic labyrinth, is illustrated by Ewald's ^^ proposed name " tonus labyrinth " for the end-organ of the octavus nerve. The great severity of shock in the monkey would accord with high

exercise of function of this apparatus in an animal endowed with such variety and range of skeletal movement. In the monkey and in man spinal shock is not only pecul- iarly intense but peculiarly long lasting. The withdrawal from the isolated cord of influences it is wont to receive from centres further headward may induce an alteration of trophic character in spinal cells — an *' isolation dystrophy " ^^ — visible, it may be, as Nissl's chromatolysis. This " isolation-dystrophy " ensuing on shock would add itself as a longer lasting, in some elements perhaps a permanent, depression. Certainly spinal transection is followed in the monkey by longer lasting " shock " — included in which I suspect is "isolation-dystrophy" — than in other animal types observed in the laboratory. My results in monkeys bore out that which Bastian,^^ Bowlby,^^^ and Bruns,^*^ contrary to previous observers, have described as the typical condition in man after spinal injury completely severing the cord. Thus, I found the knee-jerk sometimes inelicitable during a month or so after midthoracic transection in the monkey, whereas in the rabbit its abeyance lasts usually but ten minutes or a quarter of an hour.

It is noteworthy that spinal shock takes effect on just those tissues which waste when the synaptic nervous system is destroyed — namely the skeletal muscles. Where the primitive diffuse nervous system, the nerve-net, exists, as in the visceral and vascular musculature, neither ** spinal shock " nor atrophy occur consequently to spinal transection. In the skeletal muscles the " spindles " do not waste.^^ Jamin found that the disuse- wasting of the muscles in spinal dogs which had been daily exercised in reflex actions in my laboratory was much less than in other dogs he examined. The organs on which " shock " falls least heavily are those which suffer least even after exsec- tion of the spinal cord itself

The deeper depression of reaction into which the higher ani- mal as contrasted with the lower sinks when made " spinal," appears to me ^^ significant of this, that in the higher types, more than in the lower, the great cerebral senses actuate the motor organs and impel the motions of the individual. " Spinal shock " does not fall upon all reflexes with equal severity. Noci-ceptive reflexes suffer relatively slightly. In the dog, after spinal transection in the posterior part of the

cervical region, the reflexes acting on the muscles of the hind | limb show less severe and shorter-lasting depression in regard to the flexion-reflex and in regard to the scratch-reflex than | tension in the spinal mammal. The crossed extension-reflex, 1 which is really a part of the great reflex of which homony- | There is variability in the order of recovery of the various | spinal reflexes of the dog from spinal shock. Occasionally i the scratch-reflex returns as early as the flexion-reflex. Al- i though usually in the hind limbs of the spinal dog no extensor | rigidity develops, in some individuals it does so. The limbs | are kept extended at knee and ankle even to a degree that it | is difficult to break through by the inhibition accompanying i elicitation of the flexion-reflex on stimulation of the foot. ; It is not difficult to see how this may come about. Some i incidental circumstance determining the preponderance of some ; passive attitude of the limbs during the early days succeeding ] the lesion may, by its influence on the interaction of the re- i covering spinal arcs, impress an unwonted reflex habit upon the limbs. It is not uncommon to find, especially in the spinal i monkey, I think, differences in the reflex condition of the right i and left limbs, even although the spinal transection has given a perfectly symmetrical spinal lesion. Such inequality or dis- [ similarity of the spinal reflexes right and left does not neces- '■ sarily afford any evidence that the spinal lesion is asymmetrical. 1 Intercurrent circumstances suffice to impress slightly different ' reflex habits on the two limbs, and in one and the same in- dividual the reflex habits of each limb may vary somewhat from ; period to period (^/ Lewandowsky on the production of . : hemiplegic contracture). fi

Local sign in reflexes. The /oais of the stimulus plays an ; important part in determining the nature of the reflex evoked. This influence of the location of the stimulus on the resulting reflex movement has been one of the features most studied in reflex action. It furnishes a large part of the direct evidence of the "purposive" character of spinal reflexes.^ The rule of spatial proximity given above partly expresses the influence of this factor. Much that was mentioned regarding long irradiation illustrates it further. Though the importance of the locus is high when broadly taken, it does not appear obvi- ous as attaching to small differences of location in a more or less homogeneous receptive field or area. Yet in such a field the reflexes, though similar, are demonstrably not identical.^^^ In the spinal monkey, excitation of the outer edge of \hQ platita while causing dorso-flexion at ankle, in doing so generally brings the peronei into play more than is the case when the flexion is excited from the inner edge of the planta ; then tibialis anticus predominates, causing some inversion. In the frog, excitation of the skin of the dorsal aspect of the knee, and of the ventral aspect respectively, alike evoke flexion at hip, knee, and ankle, but in the former case the foot is somewhat everted, in the latter somewhat inverted. We must allow that the cen- tripetal impulses, although they yield no sensation, yet possess, to borrow a term from the psychologist, " local sign." In the naked eye Medusa, called on account of its localizing reflexes Tiaropsis indicans^*'^ the manubrium deflects itself towards the stimulated part of the nectocalyx; its tip is brought with precision to meet the concurrently contracted inbent portion of the necto- calyx. If one point of the nectocalyx be irritated, and while the manubrium is applied to that point, then another, the manubrium will leave the first point and move over to the second. In this way it may be made to indicate successively a number of points of irritation. " After a series of such irritations the manubrium subsequently continues for some time to visit first one and then

1 The "rule of spatial proximity" offers an explanation for many of those minor differences obtaining in broadly similar reflex movements, there being a tendency for the muscles belonging to the immediate spinal vicinity of the skin stimulated to respond in preponderant degree ; similarly in the scratch-reflex. another of the points which have been irritated." ^^ A cut be- tween the base of the manubrium and the point of irritation in the bell destroys the localization, though movement occurs toward some part of the quadrant of the bell containing the site of stimulus; but the accuracy of the localization is reduced. The reaction recalls the bending of the tentacles of Drosera^ in the direction needful to reach the seat of stimulation on the leaf. The headless bee stings in response to stimulation of the under-surface pretty accurately at the site of irritation.^'^ In the "spinal" crayfish, if one leg is caught it is flexed and drawn up, and soon all the others, if the leg is not released, are brought round it and push at the hand holding the limb."^* The yellow clover-fly will, after decapitation, stand cleaning its wings with its hind legs, and clean its "three pairs of legs, rubbing them together in a determined manner, and raising its fore legs vainly in air as if searching for its head to brush up."^ But in Astacus the accuracy of localization is much impaired on the crossed side by cutting the cross commissures combining the ganglia most closely concerned with the reaction.^^ This recalls the effect of the tangential cut in the nectocalyx of Tiaropsis?'^

In a reflex reaction exhibiting " local sign " in the above sense, the afferent impulses involved are divisible into several groups according to their place of origin. There must be (i) a group originated at the seat of stimulus, (2) a group initiated in the motor and mobile organs reflexly set in action, and (3) in some cases a group arising at the distant spot to which the movement is directed. Regarding this last group an experi- ment illustrates its extinction without extinction of the " local sign." Thus, in Astacus}'^ after section of the nerve-cords behind the mouth, when, therefore, the hind creature without mouth has lost all nervous connection with the front creature possessing the mouth, food given to the claws of the hind creature is still at once and accurately carried by them to the mouth, and this latter may refuse to take the morsel brought. In the grasshopper,^^^a after extirpation of the supra and suboesophageal ganglia (entire brain), the front leg is pro-

tracted, and in the normal way catches the antenna, and the usual movements of cleaning the antenna go on, although the antenna has entirely lost its innervation owing to the destruc- tion of the brain. Regarding the second mentioned group of afferent impulses, H. E. Hering^^^ has made the interesting observation that the "cleansing" reflex of the spinal frog which brings the foot to a seat of irritation on the dorsal or perineal skin is accurately executed after severance of the afferent spinal roots of the limb itself. In the same way the bulbo-spinal frog brings the fore limb to the snout when the snout is stimulated after section of the afferent roots of the fore limb. The scratcli-| reflex I find executed without obvious impairment of direction! or rhythm when all the afferent roots of the scratching hind limbj have been cut through. In the execution of these spinal reflexes, therefore, the most important afferent factor as regards " local sign " is the afferent channel from the place of initiation of the reflex.

Pseudaffective reflexes. If we turn to reflex-effects excited by nocuous stimulation of the skin but having for their field of development a wider conjunction of reflex-arcs and con- sequently a wider mechanism of reflex expression, the reflex response seems to indicate yet more clearly the " purpose " of the reflex. If from the cat under deep chloroform narcosis the cerebral hemispheres and part of the thalami be removed, on relaxing the narcosis a number of motor reactions can be observed against the background of '^decerebrate rigidity'' ^^ Among these reactions are some mimetic movements simulating ex- pression of certain affective states. These "pseudaffective" reflexes Woodworth and myself ^^ have endeavoured to use for elucidation of the spinal path conducting those impulses that, were the brain intact, would, we may presume, evoke " pain." The search for such a path is, as regards channels from skin, a search for a path as specific as those of the special senses. The truncation of the brain of the mammal at the mesenceph- alon annihilates the neural mechanism to which the affective psychosis is adjunct. But it leaves fairly intact the reflex motor

machinery whose concurrent action is habitually taken as out- ward expression of an inward feeling. When the expression occurs it may be assumed that, had the brain been present, the feeling would have occurred. Pain is the psychical adjunct of a protective reflex. A spinal translesion which prevents occur- rence of the expression in response to a stimulus that previously excited the expression has therefore been regarded by us in the following experiments to be such as would, were the brain present, induce analgesia in regard to that stimulus. Even apart from that assumption, it is clear that such a lesion can be used for determining the conducting path of a noci-ceptive i reaction. The spinal path concerned with the forward trans- ' mission of these impulses can therefore be designated not merely a headward path, but, having regard to the character of the reaction, the headward path for noci-ceptive (p. 266) reactions. The reflex-effect observed has presented the following ele- ments : diagonal cyclic movements of the limbs as in progres- sion (sometimes producing progression), turning of head and j neck toward the point stimulated; opening of the mouth, I retraction of the lips and tongue, movement of the vibrissae ; snapping of the jaw ; lowering of the head ; opening of the eye- lids, dilatation of the pupils; vocalization angry in tone (snarl- ing), sometimes plaintive; and with these a transient increase of arterial blood-pressure. These reactions appear not only in \ combination, but sometimes singly or in small combinations. The most readily elicitable are movements of the vibrissae, opening of the mouth with retraction of the tongue, and lower- ing of the head ; but though in some cases vigorous and prompt they never amount to an effective action of attack or escape. • A characteristic feature of their ineffectiveness is their brief j duration.

-The movement, even when most vigorous and prompt, I dies away rapidly, to be succeeded in some cases by a few | weaker repetitions, each in succession weaker and more tran- sient than the last. Thus, the movements of the head may recur three or four times in response to a single stimulus, or the vocalization be repeated in a diminishing series for a Our method has been to compare by means of the above reaction the effect of two stimuli symmetrically but succes- sively applied on opposite sides of the body, after a semisection or other lesion of the spinal cord headward of the entrance of the nervepath stimulated.

After semisection at the 13th thoracic level the pseud- affective reaction was obtained by stimulation bf either sciatic trunk, but more vigorously and promptly from the nerve of the side of the semisection : from this nerve also the reaction was evoked by weaker faradization. This indicates that the head- ward pathway taken by the impulses eliciting the vocal and other pseudaffective reactions is from the hind limb both crossed and uncrossed, but is more largely crossed. From our experi- ments we are able to exclude the dorsal spinal column as the main path of conduction. Sections of both dorsal columns made no appreciable difference in the reaction to the stimulus; neither did faradization of them evoke the reaction. The median por- tion of the ventral column has sometimes been trespassed on in making the semisection of the opposite side ; this extension of the lesion has not prevented the reaction from occurring. In one case the whole gray matter of both halves of the cord was found at the autopsy to be heavily infiltrated and ploughed up with extravasated blood at the level of the semisection and for several millimetres both ahead and behind it. It must have been largely, if not completely, thrown out of function. Yet the pseudaffective reaction remained very brisk.

If, therefore, neither the dorsal nor the ventral column nor the gray matter affords the pathway for the noci-ceptive (algesia) impulses, the lateral column alone is left to them. This con- clusion is confirmed by direct experiment. After transection of one lateral column alone the pseudaffective reaction is elicited from either lateral half of the body behind the lesion; after further section of the opposite lateral column, all pseudaffective reaction at once ceases to be elicitable from either half of the body behind the lesion. It is probable that in the posterior thoracic and lumbar segments this headward path is that already signalized by A. Frohlich and myself^^ as inhibiting, under

direct faradization, the rigidity of the triceps brachii in the \ decerebrate cat. I I We concluded from our observations (i) that the lateral \ \ column furnishes the headward path in the spinal cord for noci-ceptive (algesic) arcs; (2) that each lateral column con- veys such impulses from both lateral halves of the body, and | somewhat preponderantly those from the crossed half; and (3)1 that this is true for these arcs whether they be traced from | skin^ muscleSy or viscera.

It is noteworthy that the " chloroform " or " ether cry," that ! peculiar vocalization emitted by men and animals during certain : stages of anaesthetization, was often uttered ^'° by decerebrate j cats during the continued administration of the anaesthetic after ! decerebration. This vocalization does not necessarily mean an \ imperfect anaesthetization or any persistence of consciousness, ; since in our animals the whole cerebrum and the " 'tween "-brain 1 had been ablated when the administration of the vapour still | evoked the vocalization typically.

The crying of the young infant has been noticed in hemi- | cephalic children to be strong and of usual character even ! in total absence of the cerebrum and midbrain (Sternberg and Latzko^^^). These malformed infants seem to react as do \ normal of the same age to stimuli that, judging from adult ! experience, are unpleasant. They cry or whimper, pucker the ; mouth, and retract the head. The drawing down of the angles 3 of the mouth and the drawing down of the lower lip seem in- | dicative of pain : pouting of the lips — a mimetic movement i common also in the young gorilla, chimpanzee, and macaque — ■ seems to indicate displeasure. Nothnagel and others incline to \ regard the optic thalamus as the seat of the nerve-centres of mi- • metic expression. Experiments on animals and the observations i on hemicephalic children just referred to seem to contradict ' this. But we must remember that various grades of mimetic movements exist — and some seem phylogenetically much older ■ than others. The congenital have to be distinguished from ] those that are acquired. The mimesis of the infant is not that of the adult. The latter may depend on the thalamic region ; \

much of the former seems to be a reaction for which neither the forebrain nor midbrain are necessary. In the decerebrate cat we could never evoke such mimesis as might, had the cerebrum been present, have been indication of pleasurable sensation. Never, for instance, could purring be elicited, although its oppo- site, snarling, was obtained so easily. The decerebrate dogs observed by Goltz ^^ responded to almost all forms of skin stim- ulus by growling, as if in resentment. Thus, they did so when lifted from their cage to be fed each midday. No mimesis indicative of pleasure was ever obtained from them. Pain centres seem to lie lower than pleasure centres. As far as I can find from reference to books and the experience of colleagues, ** pain " is unknown as an aura in cortical epilepsy, or at least is of equivocal occurrence. No region of the cortex cerebri has been assigned to pain. Such negative evidence gives perhaps extraneous interest to the ancient view, represented in modern times by Schopenhauer, that pleasure is an absence of pain.

Bodily resonance of emotions. Some sensations are neutral or devoid of affective tone, while others are rich in affective tone. The development of these latter is closely connected with the origin of the coarser emotions. A physiological inter- est attaches to these states of emotion since certain reactions of the bodily organs are, as is well known, characteristic of them. That marked reactions of the nervous arcs regulating the thoracic and abdominal organs and the skin contribute characteristically to the phenomena of emotion has been com- mon knowledge from time immemorial.

To this bodily resonance of the emotions has in recent years been assigned by some authorities a prominent r61e in the mech- anism of the production of the emotional state itself in certain of the coarser emotions. Instead of the emotional state begin- ning, as Ladd^i^ puts it, as " a sort of nerve storm in the brain, whence there descends an excitement which causes commotion in the viscera and vascular regions — thus secondarily inducing an organic reverberation " — the view has been advanced that the cerebral and psychological processes of emotion are secondary to an immediate reflex reaction of vascular and visceral organs

of the body suddenly excited by certain stimuli of peculiai quality. Of points where physiology and psychology touch, the placd of one lies at " emotion." Built upon sense-feeling much asj cognition is built upon sense-perception, emotion may be re-i garded almost as a " feeling," — a feeling excited, not by a simple I little-elaborated sensation, but by a group or train of ideas. To\ such compound ideas it holds relation much as does ** feeling"? to certain species of simple sense-perceptions. It has a specials physiological interest in that certain visceral reactions arei peculiarly colligate with it. Heart, blood-vessels, respiratory: muscles, and secretory glands take special and characteristic parti in the various emotions. These viscera, though otherwise re- mote from the general play of psychical process, are affected^ vividly by the emotional. Hence many a picturesque metaphor \ of proverb and phrase and name — " the heart is better than the i head," anger "swells within the breast," "Richard Coeur de: Lion." It was Descartes ^ who first promoted the emotions to« the brain. Even last century Bichat wrote,^ " The brain is the 5 seat of cognition, and is never affected by the emotions, whose ^ sole seat lies in the viscera." But the brain is now thought to be a factor necessary in all higher animals to every mechanism \ whose working has consciousness as an adjunct.

What is the meaning of the intimate linkage of visceraL actions to psychical states emotional? To the ordinary day's ^ consciousness in the healthy individual the life of the viscera^ contributes little at all, except under emotion. The perceptions i of the normal consciousness are rather those of outlook upon the circumambient universe than inlook into the microcosm of the^ " material me." Yet heightened beating of the heart, blanching or i flushing of the blood-vessels, the pallor of fear, the blush of shame, \ the Rabelaisian effect of fright upon the bowel, the secretion by the \ lacrymal gland in grief, all these are prominent characters in the 1 pantomime of natural emotion. Visceral disturbance is evidently 3 a part of the corporeal expression of emotion. The explanation \ is a particular case in the problem of movements of expression 1 in general. The hypothesis of evolution afforded a new van- \

tage point for study of that question. The bodily expressions of the " coarser or animal emotions " are largely common to man and higher animals. This point of view is exemplified by Darwin's argument ^ concerning the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming. " Children, when wanting food or when suffering in any way, cry out loudly, as do the young of most animals, partly as a call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion serving as relief. Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the engorg- ing of the blood-vessels of the eye; and this will have led at first consciously and at last habitually to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes in order to protect them." ^ Her- bert Spencer wrote :^^ " Fear, when strong, expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations and tremblings ; and these are just the manifestations which would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnash- ing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils, in growls : and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of prey." In short, the bodily ex- pressions of emotion are instinctive actions reminiscent of ances- tral ways of life.

They must have an explanation the same in kind as that of other instinctive movement. There is no real break between man and brute even in the matter of mental endowment. The instinctive bodily expressions of emotion arose, in the opinion of those quoted above, as attitudes and movements useful to the animal for defence, escape, seizure, embrace, etc. These as survivals have become .symbolic for states of mind. Hence an intelligible nexus between the muscular attitude, the pose of feature, etc., and the emotional state of mind. But between action of the viscera and the psychical state the nexus is less obvious. This latter connection adds a difficult corollary to the general problem.

The fact of the connection is on all hands admitted, but as to the manner of it opinion is at issue. Does (i) the psychical part of the emotion arise and its correlate nervous action then excite the viscera? Or (2) does the same stimulus which excites the mind excite concurrently and per se the nervous centres ruling the viscera? Or (3) does the stimulus which is the exciting cause of the emotion act first on the nervous centres ruling the viscera, and their reaction then generate visceral sensations; and do these latter, laden with affective quality as we know they will be, induce the emotion of the mind ? On the first of the three hypotheses the visceral reaction will be secondary to the psychical, on the second the two will be collateral and concurrent, on the third the psychical process will be secondary to the visceral.

To examine the last supposition first. It is a view which in f^ recent years has won notable adherents. Professor James i writes : 124 ♦ «. q^. natural way of thinking about these coarser | emotions (^e.g. "grief, fear, rage, love") is that the mental per- l ception of some fact excites the mental affection called the \ emotion, and that this latter state of mind gives rise to the bodily expression. My theory, on the contrary, is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting facty and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion^ " Every one of the bodily changes, whatsoever it be, is PEL T ^^ acutely or obscurely, the moment it occurs. If the reader has i never paid attention to this matter, he will be both interested \ and astonished to learn how many different local bodily feelings | he can detect in himself as characteristic of his various emo- 1 tional moods." " If we fancy some strong emotion and then try to abstract from our consciousness of it all the feelings of its \ bodily symptoms we find we have nothing left behind, no * mind- , stuff"' out of which the emotion can be constituted, and that a ^ cold and neutral state of intellectual perception is all that remains." " If I were to become corporeally anaesthetic, I should be excluded from the life of the affections, harsh and tender alike, and drag an existence of merely cognitive or intel- lectual form."

Professor Lange ^^* traces the whole psycho-physiology of amotion to certain excitations of the vasomotor centre. For him, * The italics and emphasizing capitals are quoted as in the original. as for Professor James, the emotion is the outcome and not the cause or the concomitant of the organic reaction ; but for him the foundation and corner-stone of the organic reaction is as to physi- ological quality vascular, namely, vasomotor. Emotion is an out- come of vasomotor reaction to stimuli of a particular kind. This stimulus induces a vasomotor action in viscera, skin, and brain. The change thus induced in the circulatory condition of these organs induces changes in the actions of the organs themselves, and these latter evoke sensations which constitute the essen- tial part of emotion. It is by excitation of the vasomotor centre, therefore, that the exciting cause, whatever it chance to be, of emotion produces the organic phenomena which as felt constitute for Lange the whole essence of emotion. The teaching of Professor Sergi ^^' ^"" closely approaches to that of Lange.